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Pannage: a villager knocking down acorns for his pigs. Click for a larger view. |
Grave was the term used in parts of the north for the office known as reeve in other parts of the country, both terms deriving from the Old English "gerefa". Although elected by the copyholders of the graveship, the grave was an officer of the manor, answerable to the steward and lord of the manor. The election was held after Michaelmas (29 September), after the harvest had been gathered and the new agricultural year was about to begin. The term was one year, and on some manors those eligible served in turn. The grave's duties were varied, but his main responsibility in the medieval period was to oversee the labour services due from copyhold tenants on the lord's demesne land. Each tenant (or a member of his household) was required to work on the lord's demesne for a specified number of days a week, depending on the size of his holding. In addition, there were "boon-works" required at certain times of the year. The grave was expected to manage and account for all the demesne assets: land, grain, livestock and buildings. He had to keep accounts of all income and expenditure and present them for audit at the end of the year; he was responsible for any shortfall. There was normally no salary attached to the position, although it was usual for the grave to be relieved of some or all of his own labour services while in office, and he was often allowed to pasture some of his own livestock on the lord's pasture and perhaps use the lord's plough beasts to plough his own land. There were, of course, opportunities to pocket a few assets surreptitiously. The position could be a difficult one, and men who were elected to the position sometimes refused office, or appointed another to serve in their place. In Conisbrough manor in 1319, Elias de Firsby paid 1/2 mark to the lord so that he would not have to serve as grave for the following year.
The grave himself was a copyholder, a villein in the medieval period, and was usually elected from amongst those holding particular lands. He was likely to be one of the more prominent copyholders, since his authority had to be accepted by his fellow villagers if he was to do his job effectively. As he himself had performed labour services on the demesne, he was familiar with it and with the work that needed to be performed. The work varied with the seasons and the grave's day varied accordingly. Generally, his day began by ensuring that all those due for work that day woke up and arrived on time. He assigned duties and oversaw the performance of the tasks assigned, and in doing this he needed to be aware of the customary services performed by different tenants. In this, as in other respects, custom was a strong force, and tenants expected to continue to perform certain services they had performed in the past. This had the advantage, for the grave and for the lord, of establishing blame if the work had not been carried out properly. The grave had to report any lapses or he would be held personally responsible for any resulting loss to the lord.
The newly elected grave's term of office began at the end of September, after the grain harvest had been brought in. His first major task was the overseeing of the final ploughing of the previous year's demesne fallow, ensuring that all ridges were properly tilled. This was followed by the sowing of winter wheat and rye in that same field, and the grave had to see that sufficient quantities of good clean seed were applied. Harrowing followed quickly to protect the seeds. At this time of year pigs were pannaging, and the grave might be collecting fees payable for this right. During the winter threshing of grain took place, again under the eye of the grave, who was to check that threshers were not filling their boots, pockets and shirts with grain to take home. This was followed by winnowing and finally sieving to remove the smaller weed seeds. The grave needed to check that sufficient fodder and bedding were in hand to see the lord's livestock through the winter. The dung was stockpiled safely in readiness for spreading on the fields. Caring for and checking on animals went on all year long. Any animals that died during the year had to be accounted for by the grave and their hides removed and tanned. Buildings and farm equipment had to be inspected and repairs organised when necessary. Any materials not available in the manor had to be purchased at markets or fairs, and the grave was sometimes entrusted with this.
By March the grave's work was increasing again. Lambing season had begun, and a careful check had to be made on the numbers of new stock, along with ewes that had failed to produce young. The current year's fallow demesne land was ploughed for the first time, followed in April by the ploughing of the previous year's winter-sown demesne to be planted with barley, peas, beans, oats, and the land was harrowed. Cows were coming back into full milk, having been dried off during the winter to conserve fodder. Milk from the lord's cows was made into cheese and butter, and, as part of the lord's assets, had to be accounted for by the grave. Maintenance work continued on hedges and fences, and ditches were scoured. Haymaking from the lord's meadow took over in June, providing the main winter fodder for the lord's livestock Shearing produced another valuable resource for the lord, and the grave kept a record of the amount of wool shorn. Animals were let onto the fallow field to graze, manuring the field at the same time, followed by another ploughing. A frequent requirement was that tenants fold their animals on the lord's demesne fallow at night, providing extra manure on his lands, and the grave would be expected to ensure this took place. Weeding continued throughout the growing season.
In late summer harvest began, the busiest and most crucial period of all, and the grave was again supervising the safe delivery of the lord's assets into storage. He was nearing the end of his year in office, but the final work of the grave still had to be completed. Michaelmas was the date for the settling of debts, rents and dues, and the grave had to give his account. He was usually illiterate, but kept accounts by marks made on a tally stick or on a barn door. He had to account for the lord's income during the year: grain, peas and beans, hay and straw, animals born and died, hides and wool, cheese and butter and the proceeds from any sales. He also had to account for expenditure on supplies and materials obtained from outside the manor or for work aside from services due. From his tally marks, he "read" off his account to the steward and it was written up by the scribe and audited.
Aside from his supervisory duties on the lord's demesne, the grave had to attend the manor court every three weeks, noting the amercements and fines assessed for his graveship, and ensuring these were paid. He was also responsible for collecting any rents due. Court rolls refer to lands surrendered "by the grave", indicating that the grave was expected to receive surrenders of land out of court and then present them, complete with instructions for granting out, to the next court. Graves were instructed to seize lands that had fallen by default through arrears of rent or non-payment of entry fine and to distrain goods of those who failed to appear in court when summoned. The fact that these orders to distrain were so often repeated indicates that the distraints were seldom carried out, but rather used as a threat to ensure ultimate appearance. The involvement of the grave, however, suggests that he was expected to apply pressure.
It is clear that every day in the life of the grave was different, depending on the season and the other occasional tasks required. It is also evident that the responsibilities were heavy. Failure to provide a satisfactory settlement of accounts could have severe repercussions, as can be seen in Conisbrough in 1483, when the grave was ordered to seize some of the previous grave's lands due to arrears; the seizure was carried out in 1484. The grave, moreover, had his own land to farm; he was unpaid and not a full-time official. The grave's supervision did not require constant attendance on the lord's lands. Much could be accomplished by spot checks. It was perfectly obvious, for instance, how much ploughing had been accomplished at the end of a day. Tenants were carrying out work with which they were familiar and did not require detailed instruction.
Labour services gradually came to be commuted to rents, the timing varying from manor to manor. Nor was this a steady progression: there is evidence that services were tending to be commuted and demesne land rented out in the thirteenth century, but land was taken back into demesne in the early fourteenth century. After the Black Death in the mid-fourteenth century, labour services became increasingly unpopular with tenants, as a mark of servile status, and tenants could more readily leave the manor to find lands elsewhere if these conditions were imposed. Demesne
close farming usually required some paid labour in addition to those owing services, and labour rates increased in this period due to the reduced population. Landlords often found that renting out their demesne land produced a greater profit than desultory labour services from a reluctant tenantry. Service
closes tended to be commuted gradually, tenant by tenant, rather than as a result of a considered policy. The role of the grave changed as increasing amounts of demesne were let out for rent and labour services were commuted to rents. His responsiblities and non-agricultural duties remained the same, but instead of supervising the work of tenants, he was concerned with collecting increased amounts of rent. This meant more concentrated periods of work at the times of year (usually Lady Day [25 March] and Michaelmas [29 September]) when rents were due, but considerably less time spent on day-to-day duties.